Overview of Major Influences – Background and context

Since the earliest settlement of the Presumpscot River basin and the construction of the first dam at Presumpscot Falls (now known as Smelt Hill) in the early 1730’s (McClellan, H., 1903, History of Gorham Maine), the Presumpscot River, its immediate environs and watershed have undergone continual change. Activities that contributed to these changes included:

· clearing of land and draining or filling wetlands for agriculture;

· timber harvesting for fuel wood, lumber, shipbuilding, and later pulp and paper manufacturing;

· extraction of sand and gravel;

· development of settlements;

· construction of roads, canals, and later railroads for transportation;

· industrial development, including development of dams for water power and later hydroelectric power; and

· use of the River by industry and municipalities for waste disposal.

The variety, number and magnitude of these activities relative to the size of the River are without parallel on other rivers in Maine, e.g., no other river in Maine had a canal and commercial shipping for its entire length and, no other river in Maine has virtually all its hydraulic head captured behind dams (except perhaps Messalonskee Stream, which is about half the length of the Presumpscot and is a stream rather than a river). All of these activities contributed to the economic development of the area and environmental impacts.

The power and water supply provided by the Presumpscot were fundamentally important to the early development of the area. As was stated in Images of America, “this river is the one and only reason that 16,121 people make their home in Westbrook. From the Native Americans to the Industrialists, this town would never have been settled but for the potential for life seen by those who gazed upon these waters. Saccarappa, Cumberland Mills, Westbrook; call us what you will, but we are the river.” (Dianne LeConte, 2000)

Dams, which now and have historically occupied most of the River’s length, were essential for water power, and later, with the development of hydroelectric generation technology, provided a low cost source of electricity. Today, these older hydroelectric power facilities remain one of the lowest cost alternatives for energy available to the area. There is a price for development, however. For example, as a result of the obstructions to movement presented by the dams, access to the Presumpscot is no longer available for sea run fish. Further, only a few decades ago this was a moot issue as poor water quality rendered the habitat unusable even if it were accessible.

While use of the River for power and waste disposal were viewed as a normal part of economic development at the time, the impacts to the River, particularly its fisheries, were a concern from very early in the area’s history. Orders from the Massachusetts Legislature (called the General Court) in 1735 and 1741 required that any dams constructed on the River provide passage for fish (See Appendices 2 and 3). In the 1840's concerns were raised over pollution of the River with bark and sawdust; in the 1850's the paper industry was established on the River at Cumberland Mills, and a number of other industries including woolen and textile mills, iron works, and a gunpowder mill were adding to the pollutant loading of the River. (Collection and Proceedings of the Maine Historical Society, Second Series, Vol. V 1894 – The Story of the Presumpscot). The 1880's saw the introduction of the sulfite pulping process in Maine, which dramatically increased pollution loads on Maine’s rivers. The early 1900's also saw the establishment of hydropower for electrical production.

By the 1950's the condition of the lower River was similar to most rivers in the developed northeast: it was heavily polluted and its primary value was as a conduit for waste. However, with the passage of time and changes in economic conditions, the stage had been set for revitalization of the Presumpscot. That is, virtually all the small non-paper mills along the River had disappeared (textiles, gun powder, etc.) replaced by larger, more modern mills elsewhere. Likewise, the Canal had long since been replaced as a major transportation route, first by railroad and then by automobiles and trucks.

The culture of environmental consciousness that grew in the 1960's, in reaction to the condition of rivers nationwide, led to passage of the Clean Water Act and marked reductions in water pollutant discharges by the 1970's. Initially focused on biological oxygen demand (BOD) and suspended solids, the Clean Water Act was subsequently amended to address other types of pollution including toxic chemicals and heavy metals. The effects of water pollution control efforts have been particularly noteworthy on the Presumpscot because the source for the River is Sebago Lake, a huge supply of clean water used by Portland as its water supply. In 1999 the S.D. Warren Company, now SAPPI, the major industrial user of the River, decided to cease its pulp manufacturing operation at its Westbrook Mill. This further reduced discharges to the River. The water quality of the River now appears substantially improved. (Dave Courtemanch, DEP, personal comment).

While industrial discharges to the River have been dramatically reduced since the 1960’s, municipal treatment plant discharges and non point sources of contamination have increased due to the rising population that accompanied the recent development boom in southern Maine. In addition, development has increased along the river, affecting wildlife habitat, wetlands and open space. Further, development elsewhere in the watershed has increased the percentage of land draining to the river that is impervious to water, resulting in an increased load of pollutants carried to the river by stormwater. The following discussion reviews how the various activities that have occurred since the original settlement of the Presumpscot River basin have cumulatively affected the river, its shorelands, and the fish and wildlife resources that inhabit the River and its riparian corridor.

The chronology which follows sketches the outlines of the Presumpscot’s rich history. It was the site of one of the first serious disputes over water rights in Maine (fish versus dams). Further, it was the site of Maine’s first pulp mill, first hydroelectric project, only significant canal, largest gun powder mill, one of IF&W’s most successful efforts to reestablish a salmonid fishery. It is also one of the regions of the State where air and water quality are most improved. The list goes on. Given this history it should be no surprise that the Presumpscot is in the news once again, as society struggles to balance competing demands on its resources.

Figure 1: Map of the Presumpscot River

Presumpscot River Timeline[1]

1500’s Ammonscongin was selected as Indian planting ground because of the great quantity of fish there.

1623 Captain Christopher Leavitt (or Levett) explores to Presumpscot Falls. “Leavitt remarked on the abundance of fish.”

1646 Saw mill, Presumpscot Falls.

1650 “At certain time, the entire surface of the river for a foot deep, was all fish.”

1690 “The intense fighting (with the Indians) continued until 1690, at which time there was no one left in Falmouth.”

1699 Fort New Casco, built as a result of peace with Indians, at Mackworth Point.

1700’s Extensive lumbering along the upper Presumpscot; Royal Mast Landing below Mallison Falls.

to early “the logs were floated down the river to tide-water.” “The whole surface of the river was often

1800’s completely bridged for miles.”

1732 (Westbrook) First dam, paper mill and grist mill by Samuel Waldo & Colonel Westbrook at Presumpscot Falls.

1734 First ship built on river: 600 ton mast ship.

1734 (Falmouth) Parson (Thomas) Smith in his Journal for November 8, 1734, says, I rode with my father to see the Colonel’s great dam.” (Colonel Thomas Westbrook’s and Samuel Waldo’s dam at Presumpscot Falls). “It was here, and about this time (November 8, 1734), that the parson (Thomas Smith) saw the large shoal of salmon (‘an acre of fish, mostly salmon’) congregated below and stopped from going up the river by the dam.”

1737 (Westbrook) Thomas Chute is first settler in New Marblehead.

1738 (Gorham) At a proprietors’ meeting in Marblehead, Massachusetts, four men are granted “said Proprietors’ Rights to an interest in any one of the falls of water in the Main River, called The Presumpscot River, lying above the Great Bridge lately Erected over said River… (they) shall begin to Erect a Sawmill on the said falls on or before the first day of August next (1739). But before they had made much headway, the Indians appeared and strenuously opposed the proceeding claiming that they owned the land on both sides of the river and that the necessary dams hindered the fish from coming up the river, whereby their food was endangered.”

1739 Westbrook town meeting: “Voted, that John Wait go to make answer to the presentment against the great dam across the Presumpscot River. This was for want of a fishway in the dam (at Saccarappa).”

1741 General Court passes an act that “all the owners or occupants of any mill-dam heretofore erected and made across such river or stream where the fish can’t conveniently pass over, shall make a sufficient way either round or through such dam for the passage of such fish.”

1744 Chief Polin burns mills at Presumpscot Falls and Saccarappa.

1747 Community fish weir operated by Samuel Staples.

May 14, (Falmouth) Chief Polin and his men canoe down Presumpscot, attack a group of New

1756 Marblehead men who had left the fort to plant a field. Polin was killed, and supposedly his body was carried back to Sebago Lake by canoe where he was buried.

1770’s (Gorham, Windham) Trout at this time were abundant in the river. “Nicholas Harding … when a young man lived from his fourteenth to his twenty-first year at the Falls (Great Falls) cutting timber, and sawing in the mill… He said that they considered a hook and line as much a part of their fit-out as they did an axe, and often he would stand in the mill and catch a dozen trout of such a size that they would be quite a load for him to take to the house.”

June Captain Thomas Coulson’s mast ship and four sailors held captive for several days; he was a local Tory;

1775 his ship was to pick up masts bound for Royal Navy; masts were hidden by people of New Casco.

Oct 30, (Gorham) Selectmen of Gorham and Agents for Standish and Bridgton petition the Governor of

1781 Massachusetts and the Massachusetts Legislature for “redress of this grievance” which they cite as obstruction of the River by Dams. The reasons that they cite include the fact that “Plenty of fish (they cite shad, bass and salmon) coming even to their doors would greatly contribute to their (the early settlers’) support” and that the runs of anadromous fish benefit cod fishermen. “For it is well known that the small fish running in shore for fresh water streams draw the cod after them.” They went on to state their view that “ít appears to be a grievance that ought no longer quietly to be borne (?) that one great source of life which Nature has provided for Public Use should be destroyed to serve the interest of a few individuals.” This petition cites repeated previous petitions on this same issue but a continuing problem. (Records of the Maine State Archives.)

May 9, Gorham Town meeting “voted to petition the General Court for an order for the removal of several

1786 Dams that obstruct the Fish, coming up the Presumpscot River.”

1793 “Proprietors of the dam at Great Falls were found guilty of not keeping open a good and sufficient sluice way for the passage of salmon, shad, and alewives, as required by law.”

1795 (Gorham, Windham) A charter was obtained to construct a canal from Sebago Lake to the Presumpscot River at Saccarappa.

Early 1800’s Rueben Merrill’s brickyard on estuary at Sandy Point; the Presumpscot River is rich in marine clay.

1800’s “The Presumpscot was … rather famous for the full rigged brigs produced on its banks … (a) class of craft which were very popular in the West India business…”

June 4, 1814 Freshet carried away Gambo and Horse Beef (Mallison) bridges.

1818 Two men from Southwick, Massachusetts buy 25 acres, and erect powder mills at Gambo.

1828 – 1901 25 explosions at Gambo Powder Mill, 45 men killed.

1829 Cumberland & Oxford Canal opened.

1830’s First textile mill at Saccarappa, produced sailcloth.

1831 “May 5, 1831, a large slide occurred on the north side of the river near Pride’s bridge.”

1840 A pamphlet of the period lists 15 mills in Windham alone.

1843 Presumpscot experienced its largest flood, damaged Gambo Mills; wrecked Mallison Falls saw mill.

1845 (Gorham, Windham) Sawdust and bark from paper mill at lower falls source of complaints on river pollution.

1850’s (Gorham, Windham) Casco Iron Works produced iron to be sent by ship for sale in foreign countries.

1854 Samuel Warren buys mill at Cumberland Mills Dam.

1856 Largest ship built on river at Samuel N. Knight’s yard: Artisan, 923 tons.

1862 Gambo powder mills (Oriental Powder Company) “ran night and day” for the duration of the Civil War;

Nov 22, A mudslide occurred about one third of a mile below the village of Cumberland Mills: “the bed of the

1868 river some two hundred feet in width was filled for half a mile with debris… The old bed of the river was obliterated and the dam formed caused a rise of the water some fifteen feet, stopping for a time the mills above.”

1871 US Commission on Fish and Fisheries: “the Presumpscot, for instance, is naturally a salmon river, but that species is now extinct there. It will be necessary in order to (sic) its restoration, that a large number of young salmon be introduced to the river, and it is very desirable that it be done as soon, at least, as the fishways are completed.”

1889 First hydroelectric plant in Maine: Smelt Hill Power Station at Presumpscot Falls.

1895 Riverton Park constructed near current Route 302 bridge.

19__? Androscoggin Pulp Company at Little Falls.

1946 Clam flats closed.

1950’s Estuary stench so bad that helicopter dumped lime.

1976 SD Warren’s cleansing and purification plant opens as do Westbrook and Portland sewage treatment plants.

1999 Cessation of pulping operation.

2002 Projected removal of Smelt Hill Dam.

Cumulative Impacts to Water Resources

The River, with a drop of 267 feet over its original 27 mile course[2], was known historically as a rapid river. Because of the technological limitations of the day, it offered more opportunities for water power than larger Maine rivers. This led to its early development. Construction of nine dams, including one at Sebago Lake used by the Presumpscot Water Power Company in 1878 as a storage reservoir for the downstream dams, as well as the settlement and industrial development of the basin, clearing of land for agricultural uses, timber harvesting, all changed the hydrology, water quality, and aquatic habitat provided by the River.

Activities which have impacted water resources include:

· 9 Dams – which have altered flows and converted 22 out of 27 miles of generally fast flowing water to impoundments, fragmented habitat, and blocked runs of anadromous fish;

· 5 waste water discharges – which add chemicals, sanitary wastes, and industrial waste materials to the river and reduce water quality. These plants are licensed to discharge up to 25 million gallons per day[3];

· Development in the watershed – 31% of the lower watershed for which land use information is available is now developed. This increases erosion and warms surface runoff, and adds pollutants to surface and ground water; and

· Agriculture – 16% of the lower watershed for which land use information is available is in agricultural use. This also increases erosion, warms surface runoff, and adds pollutants to surface and ground water.

These activities have cumulatively altered the River’s water resources. Impacts include:

· Altered flow regimes

One of the most significant changes to the River, dramatically altered hydrology, resulted from controlling flows from Sebago Lake and the development of dams and impoundments on the River. The construction of the dam at Sebago Lake added 252,000 acre feet of water storage to contain spring runoff, allowing it to be released more gradually than would occur under natural, unregulated, conditions.

Naturally occurring flows were undoubtedly more variable than flows that have occurred with regulation by the dam at Sebago. The figure which follows compares a typical hydrograph of flows in the Presumpscot River at Westbrook with a hydrograph for the Ossipee River, a comparably sized river with significant headwater lakes. This comparison indicates that the principal effect of the flow regulation at Sebago Lake has been to augment low flow periods. In addition, the hydrographs suggest that flow regulation also moderates high spring flows, and tempers the effects of summer storms (the Presumpscot River is less flashy in the summer).

In addition, current velocities have been decreased by the dams in place along the River, which have largely converted the River from free flowing to a series of impoundments.

Changes in Water Quality

Because the basin was originally almost entirely forested, the original water quality naturally occurring in the Presumpscot River was in all likelihood very similar to that in Sebago Lake, its source.

In 2001, the Portland Water District’s draft State of the Lake report notes that the Lake itself still has outstanding water quality. “This fact is demonstrated by almost any scientific measure of water quality – clarity, nutrient levels, concentrations of dissolved elements, amount of attached and floating algae. But you do not need to be a scientist to see that the lake is unusually clean – any first time visitor to the lake notices immediately that you can see the bottom even in 20 to 30 feet of water. This is true of few other lakes in Maine or anywhere in the country.”

The cumulative impacts of waste discharges, watershed development, and damming of the waters which spill from Sebago Lake and flow seaward through the river corridor, are quantifiable. State and volunteer monitoring studies have measured these impacts using indicators of water quality. Changes in water quality include:

· Increased Total Suspended Solids

· Increased Dissolved Solids

· Lowered Dissolved Oxygen

· Increased Bacterial Levels

· Shift to Pollution-Tolerant Aquatic Organisms

· Elevated Temperature

The table which follows summarizes the water chemistry at the PWD intake of Sebago Lake and compares it to downstream water quality at West Falmouth. Note that the available river data water quality predates the cessation of the pulping operation and the resultant improvements in water quality are not reflected. Based on recent sampling for aquatic macroinvertebrates (mostly insects), SAPPI reports that the River below Westbrook has a 60% probability of meeting Class B water quality standards for aquatic life.

Comparison of Raw Water Chemistry of Sebago Lake and the Presumpscot River in Falmouth
Water Quality Parameter	Sebago Lake	Lower Presumpscot River**
pH (Standard Units)	6.9	7.3 (1995 field average)
Alkalinity (mg/l as CaCO₃)	4.4	2.5 (1979-80 average)
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)	13	11.4 April, 1995 7.4 June, 1995
Specific Conductance (uS)	52	137 April, 1995 154 June, 1995
Total residue (mg/l)	25	73.4 (1994-1995 average, dissolved)
Turbidity (NTU)	0.25	4.9 (1980-1995 average)
Nitrogen, NO₂+NO₃, dissolved* (mg/l)	0.271	.14 (1994-1995 average)
Sodium, dissolved* (mg/l as Na)	3.39	17 (1995 average)
Calcium, dissolved* (mg/l as Ca)	2.54	6.4 (1995 average)
Chloride, dissolved* (mg/l as Cl)	6	16.3 (1995 average)
Sulfate, dissolved* (mg/l)	3.7	8.3 (1995 average)
Phosphorus, total(mg/l as P)	0.005	0.03 (1995 average)
Iron, dissolved* (mg/l as Fe)	Less than 0.03	.08 (1991-1995 average)
Manganese, dissolved* (mg/l as Mn)	0.004	.0286 (1994-1995 average)
Sources: Portland Water District – samples collected in 2000 in the lower bay of the lake at the PWD intake, and USGS – monitoring site in West Falmouth (river sampling dates vary due to data availability) Sebago lake raw water samples are unfiltered. *No figures are available for after the 1999 closing of the SAPPI pulp mill, which significantly reduced discharges to the river

Changes in Aquatic Habitat

Increased amounts of cleared land elevate the temperature of rivers as runoff warmed by the land surface flows into the river. Impoundments which are larger than the original river and less shaded by shoreline trees expose more water to heating by the sun. This can also increase water temperatures. Upstream, in the mainstem and tributaries, temperature changes have occurred due to land development and to the slowing of the water by the presence of the dams. This is evidenced by the change from the native cold water fish species, such as trout, to warm water non-native species such as bass.

In addition, increases in the amount and rate of runoff resulting from development and clearing, increase erosion and sedimentation. According to MEDEP, in streams and rivers impacted by sedimentation, the aquatic community shifts to one more tolerant of turbid water, and the overall abundance of fish, snails, aquatic insects, and other invertebrates decreases. In the Presumpscot the community of aquatic life has been adversely affected by cumulative impacts. Macroinvertebrate sampling in the Presumpscot revealed a shift from pollution sensitive insect taxa to a predominance of snails and worms, adapted to utilization of settled solids. However, recent Biomonitoring efforts below Westbrook show that the River below the SAPPI mill has a 60% probability of meeting Class B water quality standards for aquatic life.

Streams such as Otter Brook, Colley Wright Brook, Inkhorn Brook, Pleasant River, Little River, Nasons Brook, and Tannery Brook, have all been altered by the impacts of development in the watershed. For example, sedimentation from runoff has changed the channels of these streams and increased turbidity. These streams were reportedly once coldwater sources for the River, with large populations of trout and even salmon in predevelopment times. Today the hydrology of the smaller streams has changed into slower, wider streams that carry sediment from land use into the mainstem of the Presumpscot.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS TO ESTUARINE RESOURCES

Changes in the river’s water resources are also felt in the estuarine portion of the Presumpscot, where the fresh water meets the salt water of Casco Bay. Historically, the estuary was a rich feeding ground for fish and birds, including migratory birds who used the estuary as a staging area. While birds still feed in the estuary and migratory fish still move into the River from the sea each summer, the diversity and abundance of life historically supported by the estuary has been diminished by the load of pollutants carried to the sea from upstream and the continuing loss of populations of anadromous fish, some of which served as food sources for larger predatory fish, birds and mammals in the estuary.

impacts to Salinity

Because the Presumpscot has such a large volume of storage available in Sebago Lake, and hence flows can be closely regulated to even them out over the course of the year, fresh water flows to the estuary are much more consistent to the Presumpscot estuary than they would be if flows on the river were not dam controlled.

It is unclear what estuarine species are benefited or disadvantaged by the existence of more stable fresh water flows to Presumpscot estuary, but it is clear that the system is different (more stable, less dynamic) that it would be under natural conditions.

Impacts to the Chemistry of Estuarine Sediments

The Presumpscot River estuary is a large depositional area where fine-grained sediments carried downstream by the River are accumulating. A sediment study undertaken by the Casco Bay Estuary project in 1991 showed that the fine-grained sediments of the River’s estuary have moderately elevated levels of metals and high levels of PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons). In laboratory studies of animals, PAHs have been linked to impaired reproduction and cancer. They may be carcinogenic to humans.

An analysis of sediment dioxins and furans in the Presumpscot River estuary and the bay was undertaken by the Casco Bay Estuary project in 1994. Dioxins (polychlorinated dibenzo-para-dioxins) and furans (polychlorinated dibenzofurans) are toxic chemicals that may be formed during the bleaching process at pulp and paper mills, during chlorination by waste and drinking water treatment plants, as by-products in the manufacture of certain organic chemicals, and through incomplete combustion in municipal solid waste and industrial incinerators. They can accumulate in the bodies of animals and have been linked to cancer in humans. The highest levels of dioxins and furans found in the bay were found in the Presumpscot estuary.

Mammals and birds that feed on benthic organisms or fish may absorb concentrated amounts of contaminants. Some of the tidal mudflats that represent the most important feeding areas for shorebirds, waterfowl, and wading birds – the Fore River, Back Cove, and Presumpscot River – also have the highest concentration of contaminated sediments.

Impacts on the Volume of Sediments Reaching the Estuary

The estuary is an area where suspended materials carried by the river’s water settle out. In this regard, conditions on the river have affected the estuary in two ways. First, movement of the coarsest particles originally carried by the river (bedload consisting of cobbles, pebbles and coarse sand) has been impeded by the dams on the river. This has affected both the river itself and the estuary as these coarse materials remain in the river and the ocean rather than being flushed out into the estuary. However, it is important to note that there has been no evidence that coarse materials are accumulating behind the dams, or settling out in the slack water higher in the impoundments.

Second, regarding finer sediments, the estuary has, as a result of human activities, received far greater loads of suspended materials in the smaller size categories (fine sands, silts and clays) than it would have under natural conditions. The increase has resulted from changes in land use in the watershed, particularly conversion from a forested condition to agricultural uses and urban development, and wastewater discharges. The fact that significant parts of the watershed are overlain by marine clays predisposes the watershed to erosion of small size soil particles, which settle out in the estuary and the ocean rather than in the River proper. The impact of increasing the extent and depth of fine deposits in the estuary on water circulation or the character and productivity of the biological community is not clear.

Impacts to Estuarine Water Quality

Water quality in the estuary has been impacted by the water quality in the River.

Water clarity is important to the health of an estuarine plant community. The extent of eelgrass beds is often used as an indicator of estuarine water quality. A 1993-1995 eelgrass mapping project undertaken by MEDMR did not detect the presence of eelgrass in the estuary of the Presumpscot although it was present during the 1960’s. Eelgrass may be slowly recovering in the estuary.

Improvements in water quality in the Presumpscot River will affect the estuary in other ways as well. For example, with well oxygenated water restored, the estuary should become more diverse in terms of the species present, and the areas where pollution intolerant species are found should expand. Consistent with this assumption, surveys of clam resources indicate areas where clams used to grow, but have not in recent years; however, these same surveys have identified areas where the clam resource is recovering and young clams are repopulating certain areas.

Impacts to Estuarine Animals

Pollution traveling downstream with the River has impacted estuarine faunal resources. The intertidal mudflats still support shellfish populations including clams and mussels, but the shellfish beds have been closed to harvesting since 1946. In 1991 MEDEP data indicated that dioxin, a carcinogen, was present in soft-shelled clams in the estuary in significant amounts, presenting a cancer risk of 1:1,000,000.

Below the Smelt Hill Dam, the estuarine part of the River continues to support nearly every saltwater species that is found in Maine coastal waters. However, the runs of anadromous fish (river-spawning sea fish), that extended from the estuary upriver and continued intermittently into the nineteenth century, ended in 1889 because of dams without fish ladders, and because of water pollution.

Eliminating the runs of anadromous fish and reducing the runs of American eels (a species that lives in fresh water and spawns in the ocean) has impacted the estuary as well as the river. As explained in the report on fisheries, also prepared as part of this planning exercise, runs of approximately 34,500 – 136,500 adult American shad and 150,000 – 200,000 adult alewives, and 450,000 blueback river herring potentially could be restored to the river. If these potential runs develop, hundreds of millions of juvenile shad, alewives and bluebacks would be hatched in the river each year and tens of millions would migrate out of the river each year. These fish would be supplemented with thousands Atlantic Salmon smolts and an unknown number of juvenile sturgeon, tom cod, striped bass, and rainbow smelt. Improved access to the river for American eels would also increase the number of juvenile eels ascending the river each spring and the number of adults leaving the river each fall. The yearly migrations of these adult and juvenile fish would make the Presumpscot River estuary and Casco Bay more attractive for a wide variety of predators including, but not limited to, kingfishers, great blue herons, osprey, bald eagles, striped bass, and seals.

Scientific studies in other areas of the northeast bear out the legitimacy of these expectations. For example, Public Service Electric and Gas Company (PSE&G) investigated the expected production of river herring (both alewives and blueback herring) and predatory sport fish that would result from building fish ladders at ten sites in new Jersey and Delaware that are all on tributaries to Delaware Bay.

PSE&G’s researchers concluded that between 736,665 and 4,194,959 juvenile river herring would be expected to migrate out from 10 sites providing approximately 700 acres of habitat (approximately ½ the habitat that DMR calculates could be available on the Presumpscot), and that these juveniles would weigh between 9,398 and 53,256 pounds at the time of outmigation. They further estimated that depending on when the juvenile river herring were consumed by predators (instantaneously upon outmigrating, or later, after growing further), they would produce between 539 pounds (instantaneous consumption – low prey production) and 73,696 pounds (delayed consumption – high prey production) of striped bass and weakfish.

Cumulative Impacts to Geologic Resources and Soils

Over time, the geologic and soil resources of the Presumpscot River Basin have been changed by land use activities and development of the River for water power. Major changes to riverine resources resulting from alterations to the flow regime include:

· the flooding of low lying areas behind dams;

· changes to the dynamics of river flows and riverbed processes including reduced bedload movement, reduced soil deposition on floodplains, and reduced or increasing stream bank erosion;

· increased sediment loads of fine particles resulting from land development and waste discharges;

· increased danger of soil slumps along the river due to land use changes; and

· loss of waterfalls and rapids.

Most of these impacts are self evident; however, some additional explanation is appropriate on the issue of soil slumps. The thick deposits of marine clays which resulted from the sea covering the land at the end of the last ice age, predispose the area to increased movement of fine soil particles. Soil movement in such “clays” occurs both slowly throughout the watershed through sheet, rill and gully erosion, and quickly during major mass movement erosion events. For example, in 1868, the “Great Cumberland Mills Mud Slide,” occurred in an area located about a third of a mile below Cumberland Mills in Westbrook. As a result of this slide, 25 or 30 acres of land sank and slid into the river, completely blocking the water flow on the lower river for 8 or 9 hours. It filled the river for half a mile, and turned the course of the river from its original channel about 300 feet. While we don't know what finally precipitated the 1868 slide, the changes that had occurred in the watershed, including deforestation and accompanying increased runoff and erosion at the toes of slopes, development (including regrading for roads which changed local drainage and the placement of structures at the top of the slope in Westbrook), dams, and possibly vibration from railroads, either individually or cumulatively, helped to destabilize the area that eventually slumped into the river.

Cumulative Impacts to Fisheries and Aquatic Life

The waters flowing from Sebago Lake were said to be “remarkably clear and abounded naturally in gravelly rapids” according to “The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States” a report issued by the United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries (USCFF) in 1887. Historical documentation of the fishery noted that “The Presumpscot is a … rapid river … frequented by salmon, shad and alewives, but seems to have been best adapted to salmon” and that salmon ascended the River to Sebago Lake and beyond (USCFF, 1887) . The US Army Corps of Engineers in the Smelt Hill Environmental Restoration Study, September 2000, notes that “Fisheries in the Presumpscot River historically included large runs of Atlantic salmon, shad and river herring (including alewives and less abundant blueback herring).”

Major changes to the fish resources of the basin include:

· blocking (by dams) of fish passage for anadromous (salmon, shad, alewives, etc.) and catadromous (eels) species. DMR has estimated that if access were restored for 3 species (shad, alewives and blueback herring) that fish runs totaling approximately 634,000 – 786,000 fish could be supported in the River.

· fragmentation of habitats as a result of dams on the River;

· a shift from fast moving cold water riverine habitats to a series of slower moving impounded areas, (22 of 27 miles of the original river: the total length of the River includes the river’s tidal portion, about 2.5 miles below the Smelt Hill Dam). This change favors fish species such as bass and panfish at the expense of native salmonids; and

· deterioration of water quality (including depressed dissolved oxygen conditions) resulting from industrial and municipal discharges. For more on this topic, see either the full report on fisheries, or the summary of that report.

Cumulative Impacts to Wetlands

Changes to riverine wetlands on impounded rivers with a headwater storage regulating flows to the river, and developed watersheds typically include:

· Changes in type, extent and distribution of wetlands due to hydrologic changes on the river: These changes typically include –

° conversion of riparian scrub-shrub and forested floodplain wetlands to emergent and aquatic bed wetlands as a result of the impoundment of the river and stabilization of natural water level fluctuations; and

° a reduction in the diversity and productivity of remaining floodplain forests as a result of less frequent flooding.

· Loss of wetlands and wetland values due to development in the watershed,

including –

° loss of wetlands from clearing and draining wetlands for both development and agricultural use; and

° impairment of the values and functions of wetlands due to increased urbanization of the watershed which impacts the volume, quality and temperature of the surface waters.

Cumulative Impacts to Terrestrial Resources

Major changes in terrestrial resources on rivers developed for hydroelectric power and in developed watersheds typically include:

· alteration and fragmentation of habitats and wildlife travel corridors, particularly in the riparian corridor;

· reduction in certain wildlife populations, including extirpation of some species;

· increases in other wildlife species favored by human activities; and

· a shift in wildlife and plant communities adjacent the River resulting from stabilized river flows.

Cumulative Impacts to Threatened and Endangered Species

Impacts to threatened and endangered plant species inhabiting the Presumpscot River corridor include loss of habitats, particularly floodplain forests, that provide habitat for species now listed as rare, threatened and endangered by the State. Loss of floodplain forests on the Presumpscot may have occurred in the areas of the Gambo, Dundee and North Gorham impoundments, as these impoundments flood significant areas of land adjacent to the river; however no predevelopment information exists to document the precise nature of these losses. In addition to impacts from habitat losses, species which are now rare, threatened and endangered may have been affected by changes to habitats that have altered their value or suitability for these species, e.g. reduced productivity and diversity of remaining floodplain forests (See also the section on geologic impacts.).

Two plant species identified by the State as threatened or as species of concern have been observed on the north end of Dundee Pond: Isotria medeoloides (small whorled pogonia; also listed as a Federal Threatened Species and is extremely rare) and Lindera benzoin (spicebush).

Historical records from 1918 documented two other State listed plant species along the River Corridor in Falmouth: Allium canadense (wild garlic) and Elymus hystrix (bottlebrush grass). It is not known if these species are still present, but they may persist if suitable habitat exists.

Land clearing for agriculture, timber harvesting, inundation of forested areas by impoundments, increased disturbance as well as predation from humans, loss of anadromous fish which served as food for avian predators, development and widespread pesticide use prior to the early 1970's have all contributed to cumulative impacts on certain Threatened and Endangered animal species (e.g., bald eagles).

State Species of Special Concern that live along the River Corridor are the New England Cottontail Rabbit and the Least Bittern (in the estuarine area). The cottontail prefers brushy habitats which are becoming less numerous as old agricultural fields grow up into forests, and developments replace forests and fields.

Cumulative Impacts to open space and Recreational Resources

Impacts to Open Space

Shoreline development along the Presumpscot has been relative modest when compared with development on other bodies of water in the area. As of the year 2000, only 13% of the land adjacent to the River above Westbrook was developed, while from Westbrook to the Smelt Hill Dam, development occupied 23% of the River corridor. This relatively low level of development is in part because industrial development along the River impacted its attractiveness for other shoreline development, and in part because other more attractive opportunities for residential shoreland development also exist in the area: e.g., the coast and lakes and ponds. Until recently waste discharges to the River from industrial processes have made many areas immediately adjacent to the Presumpscot River less attractive for residential and recreational development than they would have been if the water were cleaner. Most of the area immediately along the river (84% of the area within 250 feet) is undeveloped, providing a significant opportunity for efforts to keep it as open space near an urban area.

For more information on this topic, please see either the report on Open Space, prepared as part of this planning effort, or the summary of that report.

Impacts to Recreational Resources

The natural character of the Presumpscot played an important part in earlier times when Native Americans and settlers alike used the River Corridor for travel and fished its cold, rushing waters for salmon and other cold water species. While river travel and fishing were necessities to the River’s early inhabitants, they are largely considered to be recreation by modern society. Dams on Presumpscot have changed the character of the River from a fast moving river falling 267 feet from Sebago Lake to the sea over more than a dozen falls and rapids to largely a series of impoundments. As a result, cumulative impacts to modern day recreational resources include loss of opportunities for whitewater boating and extended river canoe trips as well as loss of coldwater fishing opportunities on the mainstem of the Presumpscot River.

The Presumpscot River today serves statewide, regional, and local recreationists primarily in low intensity activities such as fishing, swimming, canoeing, and motor boating in small boats with low horsepower motors. The regulation of flows from Sebago Lake provides recreational opportunities on the Presumpscot River during what would normally be low flow periods. For example, the recreational value of the River for flat water boaters and anglers is improved by increased water flow and depth during low water periods. Levels of recreational use are expected to grow in the future, as, with recent improvements in water quality, recreational use of the Presumpscot River is increasing.

Recreational fishing is one of the most important recreational activities on the River. Falls along the Presumpscot once provided places where migratory fish gathered and where fishing took place. Today, dams block the passage for migratory fish and reduce recreational fishing opportunities for these species. Long stretches of rapid water originally provided opportunities for fishing for trout and salmon. Today, the only unimpounded segments of the River are the Eel Weir Bypass and small segments of tailwaters and bypass reaches below each dam. As a whole, the Presumpscot has only 5 miles out of 27 that are unimpounded, and approximately half of this is the tidal section of the river below the Smelt Hill Dam. The other unimpounded sections are generally small segments, ranging from 300 feet to 1075 feet long, except for the Eel Weir Bypass Reach which is 6700 feet long. Thus, the construction of the dams has eliminated the opportunities to fish for anadromous species, and dramatically reduced the recreational opportunities for trout and salmon fishing while offering some opportunities for bass and panfish fishing on the impoundments (See Section entitled Cumulative Impacts to Fisheries and Aquatic Life). Species present on the River include small mouth bass, pickerel, white perch and large mouth bass (present in small numbers). There is suitable habitat for reproduction of these species, but John Boland, of Maine IF&W, feels that the populations are below normal for bodies of water of this type. He attributes this to fluctuations in River flow, which he believes affects reproduction, as well as the loss of eggs and juvenile fish. Of all the impoundments along the Presumpscot River, the North Gorham Pond and Dundee Pond are the best fishing sites for bass and various pan fish species.

The fishing in Eel Weir Bypass is an especially notable example of an effort to reverse cumulative impacts to recreational fisheries on the Presumpscot River. Native salmonids (trout and salmon) have lost habitat due to flows being diverted from the natural river bed for hydropower purposes (bypasses), and the creation of impoundments on most other fast flowing sections of the river. However, in 1992 flows were restored to the dewatered river (bypass) below the Eel Weir Dam under an order from the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission aimed, in part, at restoring a trout and salmon fishery in the bypass reach. It required restoration of a minimum flow to the then virtually dry river channel, which is approximately 1.25 miles long. This has created one of the most popular year-round fishing sites in the State of Maine. This area is stocked with brook and brown trout plus landlocked salmon. According to a Creel Survey done by Maine IF&W, there were 6800 visits to the site in 1995.

Cumulative Impacts to Scenic and Aesthetic Resources

The native name “Pes-ompsk-ut” has been translated as “river of many rough places” or “falls at standing rock”. Cumulative impacts to scenic and aesthetic resources include elimination of all the major falls on the Presumpscot River. This impact resulted from development of the River’s hydraulic head for hydro mechanical power and later hydroelectric power. The developed falls were inventoried in 1867 as part of an assessment of the potential to restore anadromous fish to Maine rivers. These falls, as named in that 1867 report, included from Head of Tide to Sebago Lake: Presumpscot Falls (now the site of Smelt Hill Dam which is slated to be removed in the near future); Cumberland Falls; Saccarappa Falls; Mallison Falls; Little Falls; Gambo Falls; Great Falls (now the site of the North Gorham dam); Steep Falls (just below the Eel Weir Hydroelectric Station); and Lindsleys Falls (the outlet of Sebago Lake Basin, now the site of the Eel Weir Dam). Dundee Falls was at the time of the 1867 report still undammed although it was the site of one of the locks of the Cumberland and Oxford Canal. All but one of these sites (Steep Falls) is now dammed; and most of the falls were dammed very early in the nation’s history, prior to the mid 1800's.

Development along the River has also impacted its scenic value in some other areas, e.g., in Westbrook where 37.5% of the shoreland is developed.

Cumulative Impacts to Cultural Resources

Cumulative impacts to cultural resources along the Presumpscot River have included:

· damage to sites from activities associated with the settlement and subsequent industrial development of the Basin (e.g., logging; agriculture; industrial, road and railroad construction; and urban, suburban, and rural development);

· the loss of archaeological sites and artifacts at and around falls from the construction of dams; and

· inundation of upland areas that may have contained sites.

Cumulative Impacts to the Local and Regional Economy

The subsistence economy of the Native Americans who first inhabited the Presumpscot River area was based largely on the food resources provided by the River including “salmon, shad, alewives, as well as other fish, turtles, aquatic mammals and birds”. This economy was in place for thousands of years before Europeans settled the area, and was replaced in the 1700’s by a mixture of agriculture and early industrial development.

The power and water provided by the Presumpscot River were the reasons for the growth of industry and population centers on its banks. For example, the community of Westbrook was originally called Saccarappa after the falls which attracted settlement. Changes to the local and regional economy, from the development of the earliest industry along the River to the present day, have both caused and resulted from changes to the River. For example, the reliable flows which resulted from damming and managing the water level on Sebago Lake provide power to industries and have enabled the growth and development in the Greater Portland Area.

It would be difficult to overstate the importance of the River to the region’s early industrial economy – in fact the River is why an industrial economy existed at all. Further, the River and its management continue to impact the region’s prosperity. For example, dams on the River are still a low cost producer of electricity and contribute to the economic viability of the SAPPI paper mill in Westbrook. SAPPI reports that the Westbrook mill obtains 25% of its power from the dams combined and it is SAPPI’s lowest cost power. The cost savings (estimated SAPPI’s from FERC license documents) to SAPPI from the power produced by these dams is approximately $1,953,600 per year. The SAPPI mill provides more than 500 jobs in Westbrook, pays $1,500,000 in local property taxes/year and the value to the local economy from direct spending (no multiplier added) on wages, purchased services and materials is approximately $85 million per year. However, the future of SAPPI’s Westbrook mill depends on many factors beyond the energy production at these dams. Utilization of Sebago Lake as a reservoir through controls at Eel Weir Dam at the head of the river (which is not included in any river restoration option in this or other reports from this planning effort) has provided a higher more constant summer time flow in the Presumpscot River which allows sewage treatment plants and industrial waste discharges to be designed for higher discharge levels. While economists would argue that all costs including waste water treatment should be internalized for the price of goods to reflect their true value and others would argue that all waste discharges should be strictly minimized to reduce their impacts, under present law and regulation higher, stable summer flows reduce wastewater treatment costs for downstream municipal and industrial dischargers. This has reduced the need for capital, improved the competitiveness of local industries, and has reduced the cost of municipal treatment plants, hence reducing local taxes and improving the local economy.

The waterpower of the River has literally fueled the area’s industrial economy, but there has also been an economic price to pay. Part of this price results from the external costs of industrial development borne by the public, e.g., the cost of public programs to reduce pollution, public health costs, etc. While enhanced opportunities have been created for flat water recreation and bass fishing, and these are undoubtedly valued by a segment of the public, other portions of this price result from reduced water quality, reduced opportunities for trout and salmon fishing, loss of recreation opportunities and aesthetic impacts. All of these have economic impacts, as well as impacts on the quality of life enjoyed by residents and visitors. Today, leisure time has increased and outdoor activities are a prime draw for tourists and local residents alike. For example, inland freshwater fishing is a multi-million dollar industry in Maine. While no economic studies have been done specifically for the Presumpscot, a Statewide study done by Professor Kevin Boyle and Mario Teisl at the University of Maine, Orono, indicates that Maine’s inland fisheries accounted for direct spending in retail sales of $196.2 million in 1996. This figure does not constitute the total economic impact of inland fishing when considering salaries and tax revenues, as well as indirect and induced effects. For example, the authors estimate that approximately 5,230 jobs are supported by this activity. Boyle and Teisl estimate total economic output from inland fishing at $292.7 million in 1996. Of course, only a very small portion of this total resulted from fishing on the Presumpscot. However, it is likely that the loss of the fish populations that are most sought after by recreational fishermen (cold water species: salmon and trout) has resulted in a loss to the regional economy. The thriving trout and land-locked salmon cold water fishery at the Eel Weir Bypass (6,800 angler visits in 1995 and 12,000 visits in 2001), one of the few unimpounded sections of the River, suggests what the fishery could be like if larger sections of the River were flowing freely, and productive cold water fisheries were reestablished.

Since information on the Statewide economic activity related to fishing is reported above, in the year 2001 the pulp and paper industry employed 13,200 people in Maine and comprised about 4.5% ($1.45 billion) of Maine’s Gross State Product (information from the Maine Pulp and Paper Association), of which only a small portion is attributable to the economy of the Presumpscot Basin.

In summary, the development of the Presumpscot River and its corridor has resulted in important benefits as well as losses to the local and regional economy and environment. While society has benefited from the use of its waters for industry, for power, and for the dilution of wastes; and many factories and homes were built along its banks; the cumulative impacts of human use have eliminated most of the natural values of the rushing “Pes-ompsk-ut,” the “river of many rough places”. The challenge faced by this collaborative planning effort, which involves a variety of organizations and individuals with different objectives, perspectives and interests, is to find solutions to problems which reduce cumulative impacts, improve the quality of life for residents and visitors, increase economic activity based on improvements in the environmental quality, and not damage existing industries.

options for Addressing Cumulative Impacts

Option 1: Encourage Local Citizens to Perform Stream Habitat Walks Within the Tributaries

of the Presumpscot River.

Option 2: Restore Riverine Habitat.

Option 3: Mitigate for the Loss of Anadromous and Catadromous Fish Runs, and

their Contributions to the Productivity of Casco Bay.

Option 4: Identify Nonpoint Sources of Pollution.

Option 5: Protect Significant Wetlands through Purchasing,

Restoration Efforts, and Protective Buffer Projects.

Option 6: Extend Casco Bay Estuary Project’s Toxic Monitoring Program

to Include More Sites at the Mouth of the Presumpscot River.

Option 7: Reclassify the River to Class B from Saccarappa Falls to Tidewater.

Option 8: Support Comprehensive Stormwater Management Efforts.

Option 9: Support the CCSWCD’s Erosion Control Training for Communities.

Option 10: Implement Nonpoint Education for Municipal Officials.

Option 11: Support Erosion Control Technical Assistance for Landowners.

Option 12: Support Natural Resources Education for Schools.

Option 13: Continue Efforts of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s Gulf of Maine Program and the State of Maine to Provide Information to Communities in the Presumpscot River Watershed and Work With the Communities and Land Trusts to Develop Protected Wildlife Corridors.

Option 14: Protect and Enhance the Riparian Corridor by Re-establishing Forested Buffers and Siting Development Appropriately.

Option 15: Identify Potential Inadequate Treatment of Point Sources of Pollution Where They Exist.

Option 16: Develop a Flood Mitigation Program for the Presumpscot River Watershed.

Option 17: A Field Survey for Eel Grass in the Estuary.

Option 18: Inform Public of Fish Advisories.

Option 19: Educate Property Owners of Negative Effects of Pesticides.

For more on all these Options, please see the full report.

[1] “Presumpscot River Time Line.” Susan Russell, 2000. Prepared for the Casco Bay Estuary Project.

[2] The original river began in the vicinity of White’s Bridge, at the natural outlet of Sebago Lake. Construction of the Eel Weir Dam in 1878 eliminated approximately one mile of the original river, so that the river now begins at the Eel Weir Dam and has a length of roughly 26 miles to the confluence with Casco Bay, 2.5 miles below the head of tide dam at Smelt Hill.

[3] Even maximum discharges would constitute less than 10% of August median flows.